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RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a single-stranded nucleic acid polymer composed of ribonucleotides — each containing ribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases (adenine, uracil, guanine, cytosine). Unlike DNA, RNA uses uracil instead of thymine and has a 2'−OH group on the ribose that makes it less chemically stable but functionally more diverse. RNA is the intermediate between DNA and protein in the central dogma, but also serves as structural and catalytic components of ribosomes, regulatory elements controlling gene expression, and the genetic material of many viruses.

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Major Types of RNA

  • mRNA (messenger RNA): Carries the protein-coding sequence from DNA to the ribosome; processed in eukaryotes (5' cap, poly-A tail, splicing); degrades rapidly; subject to miRNA-mediated regulation
  • tRNA (transfer RNA): Adaptor molecules delivering amino acids to the ribosome; 73–93 nucleotides; cloverleaf secondary structure; anticodon loop base-pairs with mRNA codon; aminoacylated at 3' CCA terminus by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases
  • rRNA (ribosomal RNA): Structural and catalytic components of the ribosome; most abundant RNA (~80% of total cellular RNA); 16S rRNA (prokaryote) and 18S, 28S, 5.8S, 5S (eukaryote)
  • miRNA (microRNA): ~21–23 nt; base-pairs with target mRNA 3' UTR; inhibits translation or promotes mRNA degradation; regulates >60% of human protein-coding genes
  • lncRNA: > 200 nt; diverse regulatory roles (X-inactivation, chromatin remodeling)
  • siRNA: 21–23 nt double-stranded; guides RISC complex to degrade complementary mRNA

RNA Structure

RNA is single-stranded but forms extensive secondary structure through intramolecular base pairing (A:U; G:C; G:U wobble). Hairpin loops, bulges, and pseudoknots create complex 3D shapes. Ribozymes: catalytic RNA molecules (peptidyl transferase of the ribosome, ribonuclease P, group I/II introns). The RNA World Hypothesis proposes that early life used RNA for both information storage and catalysis before DNA and proteins evolved.

Glossary

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
Single-stranded nucleic acid polymer using ribose and uracil; types include mRNA (protein coding), tRNA (amino acid adaptor), rRNA (ribosomal structural/catalytic), and regulatory ncRNAs.
miRNA (microRNA)
~21–23 nt non-coding RNA that base-pairs with target mRNA 3' UTR; represses translation or promotes degradation; regulates >60% of human protein-coding genes.
Ribozyme
An RNA molecule with catalytic activity; examples: ribosome peptidyl transferase (23S/28S rRNA), RNase P, self-splicing introns; evidence for the RNA World Hypothesis.

Frequently Asked Questions

mRNA (messenger RNA): carries genetic instructions from DNA to ribosomes for translation; codon sequence specifies amino acid sequence; in eukaryotes, processed with 5' cap, 3' poly-A tail, and intron removal. tRNA (transfer RNA): adaptor molecules that decode mRNA codons into amino acids; each tRNA carries one specific amino acid and has an anticodon complementary to the corresponding codon. rRNA (ribosomal RNA): structural and catalytic core of ribosomes; the 23S/28S rRNA acts as a ribozyme catalyzing peptide bond formation. miRNA and siRNA: short non-coding RNAs (21–23 nt) that regulate gene expression by base-pairing with mRNA targets and directing silencing or degradation.

Four key differences: (1) Sugar: RNA uses ribose (has 2'-OH); DNA uses deoxyribose (lacks 2'-OH). (2) Bases: RNA uses uracil (U) instead of thymine (T). (3) Strands: RNA is typically single-stranded; DNA is double-stranded. (4) Stability: RNA is less stable than DNA — the 2'-OH can attack the phosphodiester bond (autocatalytic hydrolysis), making RNA short-lived. DNA's lack of 2'-OH makes it chemically more stable for long-term information storage. RNA's single-strandedness allows it to fold into diverse functional 3D shapes (ribozymes, riboswitches) that DNA cannot achieve.

Ribozymes are RNA molecules with catalytic activity. Key examples: peptidyl transferase activity of the ribosome — the 23S/28S rRNA catalyzes peptide bond formation; ribonuclease P — an RNA enzyme processing tRNA precursors; group I and II self-splicing introns; HDV ribozyme; hammerhead ribozyme. The RNA World Hypothesis proposes that life began with RNA molecules that could both store genetic information and catalyze chemical reactions — before DNA evolved for stable storage and proteins took over most catalytic functions. Evidence: ribozymes, riboswitches, the ribosome as a ribozyme, and the widespread use of RNA-like cofactors (ATP, NADH, CoA) in metabolism.

Key RNA biotechnology applications: (1) mRNA vaccines — encode pathogen antigens; lipid nanoparticle delivery; no integration into DNA; rapidly designable (Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines). (2) siRNA therapeutics — silence disease genes by RISC-mediated mRNA degradation; FDA-approved drugs for hereditary transthyretin amyloidosis, hypercholesterolemia. (3) CRISPR-Cas9 — uses guide RNA to direct Cas9 nuclease for precise genome editing. (4) Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) — bind and block mRNA or pre-mRNA splicing; used for Duchenne muscular dystrophy, spinal muscular atrophy. (5) Diagnostic RT-qPCR — reverse transcribe RNA to cDNA for quantification.